Jin Guantao’s cultural perspective is profoundly thought-provoking. He suggests that by dividing cultural tendencies into two variables—“inward vs. outward” and “engaged in the world vs. transcending the world”—we can identify four distinct axial cultures. These four cultural archetypes paint a vivid picture of human civilization, each with clear representatives in global history.
Four Axial Cultures First, let’s briefly revisit the categorization of these axial cultures:
Inward and Engaged in the World: Ancient Chinese Moral Culture Rooted in ethics, this culture emphasizes self-cultivation and social responsibility.
Inward and Transcending the World: Ancient Indian Liberation Culture Focused on the soul's transcendence, it emphasizes personal purification and spiritual liberation.
Outward and Engaged in the World: Ancient Greek Knowledge-Seeking Culture This culture seeks the truth about the external world, giving rise to science and philosophy.
Outward and Transcending the World: Monotheistic Liberation Culture The most peculiar of the four, this culture combines an outward focus on external forces with a transcendental aspiration for salvation.
The Unnatural Logic of Monotheistic Belief Among these, the outward-transcendent culture is epitomized by monotheistic belief. Why does this culture adopt a monotheistic worldview, as opposed to the more intuitive polytheistic systems found in many ancient civilizations? In most cultures, the belief in the spiritual essence of external objects naturally evolves into polytheism, akin to Greek mythology, where a supreme deity like Zeus coexists with other gods.
Monotheism, however, defies this natural logic. The world is inherently dualistic—light and darkness, good and evil, constantly coexist. Monotheism's attempt to obliterate darkness and establish an absolutely benevolent deity faces an intrinsic contradiction: if God embodies absolute good, where does evil originate? This dilemma necessitates the introduction of a counterforce—Satan—and the concept of “eschatology” to resolve it. In this framework, ultimate good is promised to prevail in a final battle at the end of time.
From Religious Belief to Capitalist Transformation The implications of monotheistic logic extend far beyond theology. After the Black Death, while the faith of the religious elite wavered due to corruption in the Church, the faith of the masses grew even more resolute. The Protestant Reformation, particularly Calvinism, emerged during this period, embedding the idea of “holy war” into commerce and industry. Success in the secular world—achieved through diligence and industriousness—became proof of being “chosen by God.”
This ideology catalyzed transformative developments: modern commerce in the Netherlands and the Industrial Revolution in Britain. A global race ensued, with nations adopting varying banners but operating under the same underlying logic—victory, expansion, and efficiency as the ultimate validations of legitimacy. This “victory-first” mentality became a pervasive driving force across cultures.
The Misguided Pursuit of Cultural Assimilation This globalized logic has sparked debates about the value of self-cultural identity, even leading to notions like “脱支” (desinicization). However, such aspirations often stem from a misunderstanding. Transitioning from one cultural framework to another, or merely adopting a different external facade, fails to address the deeper issues.
Modern economic systems, with their excessive standardization, have rendered the world monotonous and uniform. Education systems, resembling militarized training camps, suppress intellectual diversity. This obsession with efficiency and expansion has inflicted significant harm, not only on cultural diversity but also on ecological sustainability. From industrial revolutions to commercial empires, humanity appears trapped in a “victory-at-all-costs” cycle, sacrificing both the environment and its intellectual depth.
A New Paradigm for the Future Amid this context, a new cultural paradigm is urgently needed. Humanity must transcend the “victory logic” of endless competition and rediscover the wisdom of coexistence between light and darkness. This balance could be the key to escaping the current cultural impasse. Instead of mimicking other systems or adopting superficial changes, societies should embrace openness, mutual learning, and a commitment to diversity.
As Jin Guantao’s theory suggests, the essence of culture lies in its diversity and equilibrium. The future demands a cultural consciousness that values coexistence over conquest and harmony over hegemony. Only then can humanity restore balance with nature and ensure a sustainable, vibrant world for generations to come.